The Influence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on Ethiopian Identity

Summary

• Prior to the 4th century, Ethiopia was a Polytheist state majorly made up of the Aksum empire, a wealthy civilisation that controlled major trade routes in the region.
• In the fourth century, a young missionary slave named Frumentius gained rapid prominence in Aksum and influenced the transition of Ethiopia from Polytheism to Christianity.
• This transition was orchestrated under the reign of King Ezana, whom Frumentius had tutored. King Ezana formally declared the kingdom of Aksum as a Christian state upon his accession to power and began the reign of Christianity in Ethiopia.

Deep Dive

The Ethiopian people and the Christian faith have been intertwined for as long as history can tell. This remarkable relationship was birthed in ancient times when a European Eunuch was opportune to meet Apostle Paul, a disciple of Jesus Christ. Christianity did not, however, gain a foothold in the nation until the fourth century when Frumentius, a captured Christian Syrian slave, was brought into the palace of the Kingdom of Aksum — present-day Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea — a thriving empire of the time. 

Frumentius went on to become a member of the court, eventually becoming the tutor of the young Prince Ezana, who was next in line for the throne. This position gained Frumentius the ears of the future King, setting the stage for the latter’s eventual conversion to Christianity. Upon ascending the throne, King Ezana formally declared Christianity as the official religion of the Kingdom. 

Pre-Christian Ethiopia: The Aksumite Empire 

Africa is renowned as a continent incredibly rich in culture and tradition, and Ethiopia embodied this culture, body, soul and spirit before the incursion of Christianity. However, for Ethiopia, culture seems inextricably linked to religion as evidenced by its rich display of polytheism — the worship of multiple gods — a worship that remains resplendent in historical pages to date. 

These gods were crucial to their way of life, symbolising the forces of nature, the ancestors, and the divine order that governed the universe. The early Ethiopian religious landscape was profoundly shaped by polytheism, with a pantheon of gods and spirits representing various aspects of life, from fertility and harvests to protection in times of war. These deities were not just abstract concepts; they were integrated into the everyday lives of the people, influencing everything from social customs to political structures. 

Three gods were central to the people's tradition and spirituality — Aster, the god of the sky; Meder, the god of earth; and Marhem, the god of war. A diligent trace of this religious culture reveals a strong influence by South Arabian paganism, providing a much-needed insight into the similarity between gods and the functions they embodied in both cultures. 

Amidst this culture, the Aksum Empire thrived for centuries. Aksum was a wealthy civilisation that controlled large territorial states and major trade routes that linked the Roman Empire to the Middle East and India. This position of power enabled it to thrive as an exporter of various commodities — from gold and ivory to emeralds, salt, live animals, spices, weapons and even glassware — to various nations, including South Arabia, Egypt, Middle East, India and China. Notably, archaeologists have been able to recover its indigenous coins from multiple foreign locations, including India. Aksum Empire was nothing short of a metropolis with elaborate monuments, uniquely crafted language (Ge‘ez) and a hierarchically structured class system. 

The Transition to Christianity: A Cultural and Religious Transformation

In the fourth century, a young missionary named Frumentius was captured and taken as a slave into the Aksum Empire. There, he gained prominence and eventually became a tutor to the prince — Prince Ezana. Frumentius was a man who was fervent about his faith and managed to convert the young prince to Christianity. Upon ascending the throne, King Ezana declared Christianity as the official religion of the land. He further changed the symbols of the sun and moon marked on the national currency at the time to a sign of the cross, making the nation the first to have the crucifix on its currency. 

The Establishment of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church 

From the Aksum empire’s era, Christianity spread like wildfire across Ethiopia. One hundred and fifty years later, saints from the Middle East and Asia Minor migrated to Ethiopia, introduced the concept of monasticism, translated Christian texts into Ge‘ez, and imparted a new theological doctrine. This doctrine birthed a great schism between practitioners of the faith, culminating in the creation of factions such as the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Coptic. 

Gradually, Christianity became the way of life of the Ethiopian people as their culture and identity became steeped in its precepts.

 A New Ethiopian Identity

Gone are the cultural norms and practices that may have been found in Ethiopia before the fourth century. If anything remains of them, they are relegated to the pages of history. Today, religion reigns supreme in one form or the other — Christianity, Islam or Jew — effortlessly projecting a new Ethiopian identity. 

The Ethiopian church in particular, has been highly instrumental in shaping identity, influencing traditions, customs, history and beliefs in the country.

Today, religious activities are presented as cultural norms, and the lives of the people are deeply submerged in ceremonial rituals, prayers and worship. Essentially, the social lives of Ethiopians are inevitably shaped by the church’s activities. Fasting periods, for instance, are national, with the streets bearing the marks of such seasons. Considering the predominant nature of the church and its followers in the nation, this inadvertently affects the activities of other religious sects as well.

The morals and ethics of Ethiopians have not been left behind. Fundamental teachings on honesty, humility, compassion, love and charity are deeply embedded in the country’s social fabric. As of 2012, the country had a low crime rate of approximately 8.6%.

This influence also extends to education, art, and architecture, with the church directly and indirectly contributing to the operation of numerous schools and the country’s educational development. Art, a major identity propagator, has also been heavily marked. Artistic expressions resonate years of the church’s tradition in the form of vibrant colours, complex rhythms, intricate patterns and stylised figures.

Yet, it seems ancient Ethiopian tradition isn’t altogether dead as traditional instruments such as the Masinko and Krar are in use to date.

Architecture-wise, the nation’s most pronounced tourist attractions are invariably clothed in the church’s monuments, evidencing a flamboyant display of rock-hewn churches and massive cathedrals.

Economically, the Ethiopian church held a long reign in the nation for centuries. Its vast land ownership and agricultural involvements made it extremely wealthy and influential to the extent of having significant control over the national economy. To date, the church continues to play a significant role in impacting the economy and culture of Ethiopia, promoting entrepreneurial arts and tourism in the country. Annually, tourism generates billions of dollars for the local economy as thousands flock to its historical sites. In the first quarter of 2024, the Ethiopian national government declared that it had generated about $3 billion from tourism in nine months.

The Political Influence of the Church on Sovereign Independence

The Ethiopian church and the Ethiopian government have had a dynamic relationship for centuries, with the former playing a dominant role not only in spiritual but also in political spheres. The Ethiopian Church was instrumental in shaping the development of the state, melding religious principles with elements of Judaic tradition to craft a unique and enduring national identity. This fusion not only solidified the Church's influence over political affairs but also laid the foundation for Ethiopia's distinct cultural and spiritual heritage.

The role of the church was so crucial that, at a time, it was conferred with the role of supporting the Ethiopian empire and defending its culture from external attacks. Hence, it played a pivotal role in protecting Ethiopia from external threats, particularly the expansion of Islam into the land. To achieve this, the church mobilised resistance, organised armed forces and entered strategic alliances with powerful Christian nations such as the Byzantine Empire and Egypt.

The church also had the sole jurisdiction of anointing and crowning monarchs, a practice inherently similar to what was obtainable in Britain. Notably, crowned monarchs derived their authority directly from the Church, with their legitimacy firmly rooted in its power, leading to their arbitrary appointment and removal by the church.

In turn, the church faced numerous challenges in what can be described as ‘a fight for its life,’ as several external forces tried to influence its practices. One such challenge emanated between 1936 and 1941 as the Italian empire occupied the nation and tried to ‘Romanize’ its norms. Similarly, other Christian groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church, tried to control its practices. The Derg regime, officially known as the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), posed particular challenges to the nation as well, ruling the nation under a dictatorship from 1974 to 1987. However, the Ethiopian church stood firm through these challenges, emerging with a stronger tie and influence on the Ethiopian state.

Politically, the government acknowledges the Church as a significant cultural and religious institution and supports its activities. At the same time, church leaders wield considerable influence, with their viewpoints often taken into account in national affairs.

Contemporary Reality in Ethiopia

In contemporary Ethiopia, while the direct influence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church has steadily declined, it continues to wield strong influence — despite the fact that the country has come to embody a more religiously pluralistic nature. Muslims, Jews and Protestants (a division of Christianity) can now be found inhabiting its territories and contributing to societal norms; however, the church remains a notable dominant influence.  In terms of political influence, while the church’s political role is less formalised, it remains an important voice in national debates and policies. The relationship between the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the state remains symbiotic, with both entities mutually influencing each other.

This has spurred critical religious tension among the sects, a tussle of power that continues to lean in favour of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This tussle is characterised by acts such as competition for public spaces, visibility of religious symbols, religious broadcasting and access to land for religious buildings. Government administrations have, in turn, tried to ameliorate differences by engaging favourable policies and initiatives such as the Inter-Religious Council of Ethiopia (IRCE). Yet, it seems progress towards a unified state is relatively slow. While the nation's future is unknown, it is safe to surmise that it will always constitute a religious one. The future, however, will tell its story.