Africa is often described as the most linguistically diverse continent in the world. From the markets of West Africa to the highlands of the North, and the coastal cities of the East, languages inevitably change every few miles. This linguistic diversity has become the subject of study over the decades as scholars have recognised the advantages of African languages and the influence they have had over other regions of the world.
Yet, as remarkable as this diversity is, it also bears practical challenges. Governing large multiethnic societies and conducting trade across regions have long required common linguistic bridges capable of connecting people who do not share the same mother tongue.
As a result, over time, certain African languages rose to fill the gap. Through critical mediums — trade networks, religious expansion, political power and colonial administrative structures — they began to spread beyond the communities they originated from. Thence, began the rise of African lingua francas which gradually became adopted by neighbouring peoples, became used in markets and cities and eventually became the languages through which different ethnic groups communicated with one another.
These languages were relatively few but they garnered enough usage such that their influence spread across national borders. In this class of successful languages are Hausa, Swahili, Amharic and Yoruba, among others — languages that became highly instrumental in everyday transactions, administration and education and even transcended local usage to become national/official languages.
The colonial era also played a significant role in the rise of these languages. Most colonists, for political or economic reasons, needed a unified language for administrative purposes. Similarly, the post-colonial era voiced the same needs. Hence, colonial languages (English, Portuguese, French etc) and/or widely-spoken indigenous languages were adopted. For instance, colonial languages such as English were adopted in Nigeria, India and South Africa while French was adopted in Ivory Coast, Ghana, Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea. Meanwhile, indigenous languages such as Amharic were adopted in Ethiopia, Chichewa in Malawi, Somali in Somali and Swahili in East Africa. Consequently, many Africans gained the skills to speak, read and write more than one national, official or indigenous languages.
To date, about 24 African countries have English as their official language, 29 have French, 5 have Portuguese, 10 have Arabic and 1 has Spanish.
The Rise of Indigenous Languages as Lingua Francas in Africa
Unlike the rise of colonial languages, indigenous lingua francas primarily rose into prominence as a result of inter-ethnic expansions through extensive trade networks, and influential religious/political movements.
As a result of their reach, these languages were eventually written down and entrenched in formal education systems. This, in turn, further strengthened their reach and prestige. As a result, languages such as Swahili in East Africa, Hausa in West Africa, Amharic in the Horn of Africa, and Yoruba in parts of West Africa developed into regional communication tools.
We must, however, first understand how these languages rose to prominence to get a better grasp of their history. Their spread provides us with much needed insight into the influential role the continent’s multilingualism played in the proliferation of commerce, religion, governance and cultural exchange on the continent.
Hausa
Spoken by over 60 million people, the Hausa language originated within the Chadic language family which was historically concentrated in what is now known as North-Western Nigeria and parts of Chad. Over time, as regional influence changed, some Chadic languages were replaced by Hausa. From there, the language expanded into present day Northern Nigeria and Southern Niger in the region known as Hausalands.
The Hausa language was largely propagated through its people’s vigorous participation in long-distance trade. The Hausa people are well-known for their trade capacity and ability to travel great distances to facilitate exchange of goods. As a result, they interacted with numerous cultures and ethnic groups along their paths, while creating entire diasporic communities in areas that favoured them. Gradually, the Hausa language gained so much prominence that today, one would find indigenes who either speak it as their first or second language along distinct trade routes that connect parts of Mali, Chad, Gulf of Guinea, Niger, Benin, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana.
The Hausas’ political systems largely also influenced their expansion as they were known to promote liberal immigration policies that encouraged migrants from diverse areas of West and North Africa into their cities. Ultimately, diverse groups were incorporated into Hausa ethnicity, further spreading the spread of the language.
During the 15th century, this expansion became more economically oriented as one of the biggest textile and leather industries and kola nut trades emerged in the Hausalands, primarily in Kano, Zaria and Katsina. Consequently, trade items such as bookcases, quilted armor, indigo-dyed fabrics, footwear and horse gear were manufactured and sold across Northern and western Africa. In the process, the Hausa language and culture continued to spread.
With the combined forces of commercial trade, political organisation and migration, Hausa, in no time, transformed into a powerful lingua franca. As powerful trade networks continued to link the Hausas to to the west and north of Africa and thriving commercial centres such as Kano, Zaria and Katsina attracted a diverse population, many learnt the language and Hausa became a vital communication tool spoken not only by natives but also by traders, settlers and neighbouring groups as a first or second language. Today, it is spoken by roughly 40-50 million people
Swahili
The Swahili language is largely spoken either as a native language or as a fluent second language in East Africa. The rise of this language as a lingua franca in Africa was largely sponsored by Arab influence. During the 19th century, Swahili became recognised as the language of ivory and slave caravans owned by Arabs. As a result of the need to understand and transact, the language gradually gained prominence, and even penetrated as far as Uganda and Congo. Its attribution to Arab caravans meant it was also heavily influenced by the Arab language, a reality that is evidenced by the fact that the oldest preserved literature in Swahili was written entirely in the Arab script.
Its propagation gained renewed influence with the incursion of colonialists into African lands. Identifying how widely spoken Swahili was, colonialists engaged its use as the primary language of administration primarily in Tanganyika (today’s Tanzania). From there, Swahili spread even more swiftly, carried by immigrants from other parts of Africa, traders from Arab, Europe and Asia.
The fight for colonial freedom was also largely sponsored on the wings of Swahili as a common language. Particularly in East Africa, during the decades that led up to the independence of many states in the 1960s, Swahili was that mode of communication that engineered an international means of political collaboration despite the number of varied native tongues amongst them. The language, for these collaborators, represented the idea of the freedom they were fighting for — a unifying language outside colonial rule. Upon independence, the Tanzanian government in particular, began using Swahili to conduct all official business, including basic education. In East Africa as a whole, the language was sporadically promoted in the highest political offices by premising its introduction as integral to political, economic and security interests.
Under Tanzania’s democratic ruler, Nyerere, Swahili became one of only two African native languages to be declared as a national language, the other being Amharic in Ethiopia.
Today, in addition to being the most widely recognised African language globally, Swahili is generally spoken across at least a full-third of the African continent, and as a lingua franca in Tanzania, Kenya, Congo and Uganda. Many elites, intellectuals and activists have since called for the use of Swahili as a transcontinental language. In 2004, the African Union, nurturing a similar sentiment premised on the idea of African unity, adopted Swahili as its official language.
Amharic
1955 witnessed a historic moment in the history of Africa as Emperor Hailie Selassie officially declared Amharic the national language of Ethiopia. This was a bold move in light of the fact that most African nations back then adopted the official languages of their former colonial masters. Amharic’s ascent to lingua franca status in Africa, like Swahili, was founded on the widespread recognition the language had already garnered as well as the need to unite Ethiopia's diverse populations.
Prior to this rise, the language had been the subject of much recognition by historical leaders. For instance, in the 13th century, after overthrowing the ruling Zagwe dynasty, King Yakuno Amlak of Bete Amhara (a historical land in north-central Ethiopia) designated Amharic as the “king’s language,” serving as the lingua franca of his court. Similarly, King Tewoodros II became the first king in Ethiopian history to adopt Amharic as the country’s literary language, while previous kings before his reign, including Emperor Yohannes IV had used same in his transactions with regional monarchs believing it was an indispensable tool for the Ethiopian empire’s unification. Emperor Menelik II also made his mark in the consolidation of the status of the Amharic language. During his era, which was characterised by a rapid expansion of the Ethiopian empire’s borders, he appointed Amharic-speaking officials to administer annexed territories. As a result, Amharic became a national lingua franca de facto.
By the time Haile Selassie declared Amharic an official language in 1955, his goal of a unified Ethiopian identity was no longer far off. Soon after, printing presses were introduced into major Ethiopian cities and Amharic became the print language of the nation as well. To further ease Ethiopia into his vision, Selassie created laws and policies that would help nationals successfully navigate the myriad of languages within the nation. Gradually, Amharic became the only language used by the government and in schools.
Today, there are over 80 ethnic groups in Ethiopia and almost 100 languages. Of these, the Amharic language is native to only about 27%, while nearly 22 million people speak it as a first language and 4 million more, as a second language. However, in 1991, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) succeeded in introducing a multinational federalist system. This changed the status of Amharics as a national language by giving all existing Ethiopian languages an equal status while Amharic was retained as the official working language of the federal government.
Yoruba
The story of the Yoruba language’s evolution into a lingua franca in West Africa is inseparable from the rise of its people. Their role in the dynamic expansion of the language through trade and politics is so profound that Yoruba can now be found in areas spanning Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. The Yorubas, as they are popularly referred to, were already connected through centuries-old trade networks through Nigeria to parts of Benin and Togo. Through these trade networks, commodities such as kola nuts, salt, pottery and gold passed through much more than hands but tongues as well.
At the centre of these trade networks were old and powerful Yoruba empires, including the likes of the Oyo, Ife, Ibadan empires. These were vibrant urban centres of the time that pulled in travellers and traders from various parts of Western Africa. Within these bustling precincts, the Yourba language gained prominence as a common language. The empires themselves were such powerful political entities in pre-colonial West Africa that their reach stretched across vast regions, characterised by large armies, emissaries and tributes.
Then came the colonialists who, seeking ways to control the affairs of these prestigious empires, introduced the Christian missionaries who began codifying Yoruba into written form for educational purposes. Instead of being suppressed, Yoruba literacy blossomed in West Africa, first in religious texts and later in newspapers, literature and political pamphlets.
The rise of the Yoruba language as a lingua franca was also largely influenced by the emergence of Lagos, a boisterous city within the nation’s southern borders known for its Yoruba heritage, as a global port city. Through Lagos, many non-native speakers encountered the Yoruba language in classrooms, markets and offices and had to gain fluency in it as a matter of practical necessity. Despite the fact that the city has become a thriving hub of multiple ethnic groups, it has not lost its Yoruba roots by any means. Many who live or have lived in the state to date have a common trait: they have all learnt the Yoruba language either as a first or second language.
Today, Youba has continued to thrive like its people despite the extinction of many Nigerian languages. It is currently spoken by an estimated 40 to 50 million people globally, reportedly as a result of the Nigerian pop culture and more specifically, Lagos’ continued influence as a thriving social hub. The Nigerian music and film industry have also played a significant role in the language’s rapid proliferation. With rising Nigerian artists—who tend to infuse Yoruba into their works—gradually gaining international recognition on global stages, it may only be a matter of time before the language becomes permanently etched in the global arts and entertainment culture.
The Yoruba vocabulary is also still being used in some of Africa's diaspora religions to date, including the Afro-Brazilian religions in Candomble and Umbanda, Afro American religions in South Africa and the Caribbean religion of Santeria.
